Garden Design In Dry Climates – Reducing The Size Of The Lawn

Leafing through a garden design book the other day, I was struck by a curious fact. The book is one of many by John Brookes, the renowned British designer. In virtually every case study presented, the size of the lawn is greatly reduced in comparison to the standard suburban garden most of us would recognize. As there is no indication in the book that Mr. Brookes is relating to water conserving gardening, it is safe to assume that design is his paramount issue of concern.

Gardeners in dry climates should take note of this, because saving water is usually the first reason, if not the only one offered, for reducing the size of a garden lawn. It is not difficult to see why, as grass in the Mediterranean climates typical of Southern Europe, Southern California, or Southwest Australia, requires at least 700 mm of irrigation water year. In more arid regions like Central Asia and parts of the Middle East, the consumption rate rises steeply. Yet here we see a world-famous garden designer, severely limiting the area allotted to a lawn, for purely design reasons.

All professional designers are acutely concerned with scale and proportion. Most of us understand this when it comes to how vertical lines relate to each other, such the height of a tree being in scale to the size and height of the house. There is little difficulty in pointing out that a 30-meter tree would be out of place in a tiny backyard plot, and next to a two-storey house.

Less obvious perhaps, but no less pertinent, is the need for the horizontal spaces in the garden to be in suitable proportion to each other. Let’s take for the purpose of simplicity, an example of a 10m by 10m plot, (30ft * 30ft) where the grass takes up almost all the space, with 0.5 meters in width being left as a border for bedding plants. Looking at the two main spaces, i.e. the lawn and the border, it is clear that the proportions are completely wrong. That is why John Brookes or any less famous garden designer would never create a garden in such a manner.

In fact, it is fascinating as a dry climate gardener, to see the design solutions he proffers. Lawns are replaced by brick paving or by a wooden deck, by sweeps of ground-hugging plants, or by a beautiful seating area enveloped in lush, green foliage. Furthermore, by expanding the width of the beds at the expense of the grass, it is possible to increase the three-dimensional character of the garden by means of raised structures, or sunken spaces. Remember that changes of level, however gentle or subtle, are the stock-in-trade of the garden designer.

Some gardeners in dry climates may look jealously at their counterparts in wetter climes, and dream of growing acres of lawn without having to worry about wasting water or how best to irrigate the grass. Instead, we should learn from the great garden designers and reduce the size of the lawn in relation to the plot as a whole. In this way, we not only save water, but also create a more satisfying garden composition in the process.

Garden Design – How You Can Learn From Books And From Visiting Gardens

All of us involved in gardening, whether home gardeners or landscape professionals, ought to have the will and desire to learn continuously about our amazing occupation. A stroll in the local park, apart from being a pleasant experience in itself, is an opportunity for gaining just one more insight, or learning something new. This is even more so when one visits some great and famous garden, or even while thumbing through a garden design book. The question is, do you know how to learn from these experiences?

It is clear to me as a garden designer and contractor that many homeowners who are anxious for design inspiration, approach the matter from the wrong starting point. Most commonly, the person relates what they see directly to their own garden. After thinking “Oh that won’t grow in my backyard”, or believing that a particular configuration is beyond their budget, they switch off and move on in the hope of finding something more relevant to their situation. The irony is that seeing things exclusively from your own subjective point of view, cuts you off from many sources of inspiration, some of which might be right under your nose!

Let us try to see things for a moment as a designer would. A professional involved in any branch of design, whether it is gardens, home interiors, or architecture, distinguishes between two vital but distinct categories. On the one hand, are the subjective desires and needs of the customer. Designing a garden that fails to relate to these, is like cooking a magnificent steak for a vegetarian!

On the other hand though, the designer sees things objectively, by relating everything to the principles of design. Here are some issues that a garden designer would raise.

*Is the size of the flowerbed in correct proportion to the size of the lawn?

*Is the height of the proposed trees in scale with the house?

*Is the leaf shape of a particular bush, in harmony with the leaf texture of the mass of shrubs?

*Would that statue serve as a striking focal point? Would plants with showy flowers strengthen the statue’s role as a focal point or compete with it?

*Have I created a clear and bold composition?

These are the sort of questions you can ask yourself when looking for ideas. By mentally distancing yourself from your own garden, you can afford to relax and start to see the reasons why the water feature has an abstract form, or why ornamental grasses have been planted around it. You realize that all the parts that make up the garden seem to belong; that nothing is random, and that everything has a role and purpose. The best way to get real inspiration from a great gardening book or from a fine park, is to understand the principles behind the fabulous pictures that you see before you.

Garden Pest Control – The Two Sides Of the Coin For Effective Pest Management

As with everything else, effective results in controlling garden pests depends on the approach or the attitude that is adopted. Broadly speaking, there are two aspects to pest control. At first sight, they may seem in contraction with each other, but on closer examination, they can be seen as two sides of the same coin.

The first basic requirement is constant monitoring by the gardener. Although many horticultural tasks are seasonal, such as pruning or feeding, they can usually be deferred for a while, providing they be carried out within a certain time range. When it comes to pests and disease however, the gardener should always be aware of what is going on, and be ready if necessary for immediate action. Here are some examples.

*Aphid attacks in the spring or autumn can occur very suddenly, where seemingly overnight, some garden plants become smothered in the sticky honeydew secreted by the insects. More threatening than the direct parasiting on the plants is the development of the black, sooty fungi that grow on the honeydew. Swift and direct action is therefore necessary in such circumstances, although this is not synonymous with spraying chemical pesticides on the affected plants.

*The fungi collectively known as powdery mildew are liable if left unchecked, to virtually defoliate a wide range of plants. They can be particularly devastating on roses in warm and moist conditions. Prompt action, which often simply entails washing down the leaves with a strong jet of water, is usually sufficient to prevent the worst consequences.

*Newly laid lawns that have shallow and under-developed root systems, are especially vulnerable to the depredations of caterpillars and other insects that chew on roots, thereby disconnecting them from the plants. Again, this can happen so quickly, that a delayed response can virtually destroy the lawn.

The other side to pest control, counter intuitively perhaps, is to try as far as possible, not to do anything! The optimal situation is when the organisms in the garden; bacteria, plants, fungi, insects, birds and animals etc, balance each other’s population levels to the point that no particular organism turns into “pest”. Low levels of aphid damage for instance, should be tolerated and even welcomed because the aphids provide food for predators that keep the insect’s numbers in check.

A golden rule of pest control is that the more aggressive the response, the greater the disturbance of this natural balance, resulting in the long-term, in more, not less infestations of plant pathogens. In other words, the greater the number and variety of organisms that inhabit the garden, the less the number and destructive potential of pest organisms. It is desirable therefore to grade the possible responses in order of their capacity to reduce wild life in the garden.

In this respect, the most damaging solution is to apply chemical pesticides. The second worst response is to use “environmentally friendly”, non-poisonous pesticides such as pesticidal soaps and horticultural oils, while at the bottom of the scale are mechanical actions, like hosing down leaves.

So while being constantly on the alert for pests and diseases and being ready to take immediate action where required, the gardener should be attempting to intervene as little as possible. Ultimately, the aim, which is not usually attainable in its entirety in private gardens, is to do nothing whatsoever!

Landscape Trees - Don’t Make These Mistakes When Choosing One For Your Garden

Choosing a landscape tree is without a doubt the most fateful decision as far as the garden is concerned. The right decision can make the garden, while an unwise choice is liable to turn the garden into a liability. Landscape professionals and garden designers follow a systematic procedure by which they arrive at the species of their choice. By understanding this process, you can at the very least, avoid some of the worst mistakes.

The criteria for choosing a garden tree can be grouped into three separate but related categories. The first involves the basic cultural requirements of the tree and takes into account such factors as temperature, shade and sun, and soil conditions. To choose a stunningly beautiful tree that is unsuited to the climate or aspect of your garden is clearly a basic error.

The second category concerns certain characteristics of the tree that make it undesirable for a particular plot, like aggressive roots, excessive litter, poisonous berries, or disagreeable smell. Male specimens of the Carob are a good example of this last point.

The designer turns to the third aspect, after the first two categories have been examined and the tree’s credentials deemed satisfactory. This involves the suitability of the species from a design angle. The designer examines a number of criteria in strict order of priority. If a certain tree “fails” in one, the designer removes it from the shortlist. It’s as simple as that. Here is an outline of the procedure that you too can follow.

Size

The potential tree has to have dimensions appropriate to the size and scale of the plot. The cardinal error is to plant a species that will prove too large in years to come, while believing that it can “always” be pruned back if necessary. Do not make the mistake of trying to fit the tree to the space.

Shape

Before thinking of your favorite species, see in your mind’s eye the shape of the mature tree. Whether you like it or not, its shape will visually affect the garden more significantly than anything other than its size. Should the tree be tall and slim like a Cypress, rounded, conical in shape, weeping like a Willow, or umbrella-like?

Deciduous or Evergreen?

This is another strategic decision that precedes the actual choosing of the species. A well-balanced garden will contain evergreens for stability and screening, and deciduous trees for dynamic change through the seasons. Deciduous species are generally preferred as shade trees, because they screen the sun in the summer, while letting in its rays when out of leaf during the winter.

Leaf Texture and Bark

The foliage texture is determined by the leaf size, shape, and shade of green. The larger the leaves, and the darker they are, the courser the leaf texture, while small, delicately shaped leaves of brighter color, create a fine texture. It may be counter-intuitive, but the leaves’ color should take priority over that of the flowers! Similarly, the color and texture of the bark, is more significant over the 12 months of the year, than the ephemeral display of the tree’s blooms.

Flowers and Decorative Fruit

The starting point for the naïve and inexperienced, is the last port of call for the professional designer. It is not that flower color is unimportant; on the contrary, it could be the icing on the cake, or the little dash of basil and oregano that makes all the difference to the pasta sauce. It is simply, the last aspect to consider in the process of choosing a tree for the garden. Don’t forget that some of the most satisfying landscape trees, such as Oaks and Ashes, are entirely lacking in showy, colorful flowers.

Pest And Weed Control – When Using Pesticides Can be Justified

The case against the widespread use of chemical pesticides in gardens is overwhelming from both an environmental point of view, and as an effective long-term strategy of pest control. Indeed, the approach that is generally accepted by most landscaping professionals today is known as Integrated Pest Management (IPM), which advocates the application of pesticides only when no realistic alternative exists.

The antipathy to poisons and an acceptance of an “organic” approach to weed and pest management should not be confused however with an extremist rejection of synthetic pesticides under any circumstances. There are such gardeners of course, and they are perfectly entitled to their opinion, especially when one considers that pesticides are tested on laboratory animals before entering the marketplace.

There may be a strong moral case for the outright rejection of chemical poisons, but does that coincide with a strong practical case for such a position? Here are three examples that show in that in certain circumstances, the use of chemical pesticides, including weed killers, is both necessary and justified.

*The first case concerns the Pine Processing Moth, (Thaumetopoea wilkinsoni) from the Eastern Mediterranean. This insect builds its silky nest on the tips of pine trees in the autumn. At the onset of spring, the caterpillars march down the tree in a strictly regimented fashion, before burying themselves in the ground, to emerge as adults at the end of the summer.

The moth is less of a problem to the pine trees themselves, at least to mature specimens, but extremely unpleasant to people. The caterpillar’s tiny hairs, are highly toxic, and are liable to cause severe skin and eye infections. In rare cases, they have caused blindness. While there are a number of non-poisonous means of control, such as spraying BT from the air, (the bacteria that are harmless to animals) this is clearly impractical in urban situations. The solution commonly applied, is for professional exterminators to drill some holes into the tree’s bark, and then inject a systemic poison into the tree.

*The second example shows how the temporary use of a pesticide has saved forestation projects from collapse. Stands of Cedar are liable to be attacked by a deadly aphid known as Cinara. While the population levels of this pest are controlled in natural eco –systems by a parasitic wasp called Pauesia; the Cedars in planted forests are highly vulnerable to the aphid, in the absence of this natural enemy.

This is what happened in Israel, where Cinara aphids were decimating Atlantic Cedar plantations (Cedrus atlantica). It was decided to introduce the species of Pauesia that parasites on the aphid, as a means of biological pest control, but the wasp had to be imported from Morocco, thereby entailing long quarantine procedures. In the meantime, a systemic pesticide was applied to save the precious cedars, until the Pauesia wasp could be safely introduced.

*Finally, let’s look at invasive plants that “escape” from fields or parks and gardens, and establish themselves in natural areas. This problem of “invasive alien species” is an ecological question of the first order, because the invasive plants are liable to eliminate the natural flora, and by so doing, devastate the fauna (from bacteria to reptiles and mammals) which associates with the vegetation.

In many places, it has been found that the only way of getting rid of the invasive species is to fell them and then paint the stumps with a suitable herbicide. In other words, chemical poisons are used in order allow for the reclamation and re-establishment of natural eco-systems.

Garden weed Control – How Best To Deal With Oxalis

Oxalis, commonly known as Wood Sorrel, is hardly one of the ugliest of weeds. On the contrary, many species are favored perennials in garden beds, with their delicate, clover-like leaves, and attractive blooms. Yet one species of Wood Sorrel, Oxalis pes-caprae, can be in certain circumstances, one of the most annoying and difficult weeds to eradicate.

Oxalis has two properties that make it particularly problematical. One is the vigorous network of bulbs that it develops, rendering ineffective, hand or mechanical weeding. Secondly, while most perennial weeds are active during the summer, the primary growing season for Oxalis is the winter. Why is this a problem?

It is often the case that perennial weeds need to be treated with a systemic herbicide in order to eradicate them. The most suitable systemic weed killers available to gardeners are those based on glyphosate, such as Roundup. The trouble is that Roundup’s systemic properties (that is the capacity to reach down to the plant’s roots) are only effective during warm weather, and when the weeds are actively growing. Considering that the plant is mainly active during the cooler months of the year, it follows that the bride and the groom; in this case Oxalis and Roundup, “miss” each other.

Wood Sorrel is not a disaster in all situations. If it grows in a small flowerbed, hand weeding as a part of routine maintenance, will not eliminate the weed, but keep it under reasonable control. As mentioned before, the plant is not unattractive.

Heavy infestations in a lawn can be more disagreeable, unless mowing is carried out very frequently – say every three days or so. If eradication is the goal, then it is possible to apply a selective herbicide, that poisons broad-leaved plants (like Oxalis) without damaging then lawn. The trouble is that the weed killers in this category, which are based on the dreaded 2-4-D, evaporate easily, and by so doing, can seriously damage neighboring plants, including those in adjoining properties. While their use may be reasonably safe where there are no plants in the vicinity, in the average private garden, they are liable to be very dangerous.

Without a doubt though, Oxalis comes into its own as a noxious weed, in areas of the garden planted with low ground covers. If it is growing with the ground covers, it is virtually impossible to get rid of without damaging the desired plants. It is vitally important therefore to eliminate the Oxalis prior to planting. However, here it is worth remembering the case of the unhappy bride and groom who discover that they are unsuited to each other!

What should you do in the summer for instance, if you were planning to plant ground-hugging plants, in soil that may contain Oxalis bulbs? The answer is to wait for winter and the sprouting of the Oxalis weeds, and then treat them with the afore-mentioned selective herbicides, which unlike Roundup, are effective in cool weather. Needless to say, the work should only be carried out by a qualified professional.

Sustainable Gardening – The Main Five Points To Bear In Mind

Sustainable gardening, like sustainable farming or industry, can be defined as satisfying our desires and achieving our targets, WITHOUT harming the rights of others or of future generations. More specifically, as horticultural activity consumes resources and impacts the environment, sustainable gardening is an attempt to reduce to minimum levels, the exploitation of precious resources such as water, while attempting to preserve the environment as far as possible.

There are many ways in which gardening and gardeners pollute the environment, and deplete resources. They can be reduced though to five main areas.

Water

The excessive use of water for irrigating parks and gardens is the single most serious area of concern. Those of us in dry or semi-arid countries cannot rely on seasonal rains alone, and are dependent on at least some additional irrigation. However, as with a private bank account, consumption cannot outstrip reserves indefinitely. The question we have to ask ourselves is will there be anything left for our children and grandchildren, or is the beauty and joy of gardening the exclusive preserve of this generation? For how long can we continue to take more than we have?

The problem with water conservation is that it is a very involved and complicated matter, requiring the direct involvement of the authorities at the highest level, as well as a radical re-think on behalf of the consumer, concerning the way we garden.

Pollution

Horticulture like agriculture is responsible for seriously polluting a number of resources. Most obvious is the case of fertilizers and pesticides leaching out of the soil and polluting the water table. Unlike water use however, much can be done immediately by the home gardener and the landscape professional alike. Changing over from chemical to organic fertilizers for example, does not have to involve any reduction in the growth or quality of the plants. Abstinence from using pesticides, except perhaps in extreme circumstances, is no longer the preserve of vegetarians and organic gardeners, but now, the generally accepted approach to pest control.

Soil

Inappropriate irrigation practices and the persistent use of chemical fertilizers are responsible for the increasing salinity of soils, especially in dry climates. In conjunction with rising salt concentrations, the soil is liable to become calcareous or sodic. In both cases, but especially in the latter, growing plants can become virtually impossible, rendering the soil useless for generations to come.

Depletion of special habitats

Many special, delicate, and unique habitats are in danger of collapse as a result of landscape gardening. The worst example is the degeneration of peat bogs, due to the extraction of peat that is used as an ingredient in potting media. As there are now perfectly adequate alternatives to peat, such as Perlite, this particular misdemeanor is especially unnecessary. We can all put pressure on plant nurseries and garden centers, to desist from using and marketing, peat-based products.

Garden waste adding to landfills

All garden refuse, from grass clippings, to pruned branches, should find its way back into the soil, as mulch, or compost. Shredding and chipping machines, suitable for the private garden, are now available, and ought to be considered standard equipment. Is that not preferable to the waste mountains we are “bequeathing” to our children?

To conclude, let’s remember that gardening is supposed to be about improving the quality of life and raising the human condition; physically, visually, and spiritually. At its best, it is one of the most civilized and civilizing of human activities. From every point of view therefore, gardening practices that are non-sustainable, defeat the whole purpose of the exercise!

Ash – A Forgotten Landscape Tree For Private Gardens

While Ashes are quite commonly planted in public parks and gardens, and even as street trees in some places, they are rarely seen in private gardens. Perhaps many homeowners feel the tree is a bit “common”, or lacking in showy flowers and edible or decorative fruit. This is a pity because in terms of natural shape and form, ashes can be amongst the most beautiful of landscape trees available to gardeners. Their neat, oval shape is very distinctive and virtually unique.

Other than their landscaping qualities, there are many good reasons for considering Ashes for a private garden. They are fast-growing, hardy to heat and cold, (at least the deciduous species) and generally withstand attacks from pests and disease without the need for intervention. As they have a clearly defined shape, they require little pruning, at least for shaping purposes. Ashes do not possess aggressive roots, and so can be used as excellent shade trees in the patio.

Another very significant property is that they grow well in alkaline soils. This makes them particularly suitable for dry, Mediterranean climates, although they do need some additional irrigation through the summer. While the deciduous species can take quite severe winter cold, even the evergreen ones are hardy to any cold to which a Mediterranean climate is liable to reach.

Species do vary in their height and spread. Fraxinus pennsylvanica (Fraxinus is the botanical name for Ash) and F.udhei, are deciduous and evergreen respectively. Both are fairly large, reaching over 10 meters (30ft) in height and spread, and so are inappropriate for small gardens. F. velutina, of similar dimensions, is native to South-Western US, and withstands both the extreme heat of a desert, and cold down to about -20c. Its shape is almost pyramidal when young.

There is no point in planting such species in small spaces, with the intention of shortening branches that intrude into paths and buildings. Such pruning ruins the natural shape of the tree, and so it is very important to choose a species that is suitable for the plot.

For small gardens, Fraxinus syriaca from the Eastern Mediterranean can be a fabulous addition to the garden composition. In fact, its open, habit and finely fissured bark, are so beautiful, that the tree can serve as a focal point in the garden. Added to that is the lovely fall color which is particularly pronounced in climates that experience even light frosts in the winter.

Garden Care And Maintenance – Tips On How To Get Value For Money

Whether you hire a professional gardener to maintain your garden, or care for it yourself, the same question arises. On what exactly, are you spending your money or your time? If you’re spending money on a gardener, it’s a matter of time is money. The more time the gardener has to spend, the more money you have to pay out. If on the other hand it is your time at stake, it’s a question of how effectively you are using the most precious and irreplaceable resource at your disposal.

Garden care and maintenance is in fact an issue that ought to be considered at the design stage of the gardening process. There is little value in a design that will involve you in maintenance costs that you will not be able to keep up with. Therefore, your ability or willingness to deal with the plants is as important a consideration as their design or cultural suitability. Here then are some points worth examining.

Trees

Some trees, like palms or cypresses, require virtually no pruning at least for shaping purposes, as they naturally possess a strong, clear shape. Others, like elms and oaks, invariably need some intervention, while many fast-growing species, such as Tipuana or Peltophorum, need the constant supervision of a gardener whose expertise should approximate that of a tree surgeon.

The extent that a particular tree produces litter is an often overlooked factor. A species may be chosen because of its showy flowers, or edible fruit, only for these to end up being a real pest. Examples include the mess made by dates, Ficus berries, or the sticky flowers that fall from Jacaranda trees. Deciduous trees are often rejected out of hand on these grounds, yet their leaf drop is seasonal and usually of brief duration.

Shrubs and bushes

A clear decision has to be made whether the landscaping shrubs are to provide a loose, informal screen, or to be grown as a sheared hedge. While the growing of shrubs is rarely maintenance-free, maintaining a neatly trimmed hedge is altogether another matter in terms of time and money. If you do it yourself, will it be a labor of love, or a chore. If the latter is the case, what results are likely to ensue?

Climbing plants

Climbers are often thought of as easy plants to grow, because they just “do their own thing.” This though is where the biggest errors are made, because of the all the different kinds of plants, they can be the most difficult to handle. Take Thunbergia grandiflora for example; it may cover a wall or fence very rapidly, sporting spectacular lilac flowers in the process, but then it just becomes an untidy, unmanageable tangle.

Bougainvillea though has to be the best case of an “expensive” plant to maintain. It combines rampant, thorny growth, with constant litter and mess. A customer of mine was shocked when I pointed out to her recently, that over half of the fee she pays me, simply goes on me sweeping and cleaning the fallen Bougainvillea bracts. “Do you think that is money well spent?” I asked.

Garden Irrigation – Watering Trees And Shrubs During A Drought Year

In Mediterranean and other dry or semi arid regions, regular irrigation is an integral part of having a garden. Usually, the amount of water available to the home garden is severely restricted, but within known limits, the garden plants can nonetheless be grown satisfactorily.

In climates typified by long, hot, dry summers, the gardener is dependent on the amount of winter rainfall. In the Eastern Mediterranean for example, the average annual rain amounts to about 500mm, all of it falling between November and the end of March. Naturally, during dry winter years, it is often necessary to cut back on water use during the summer. The question arises therefore, as to how this should be done.

The most common reaction is to refrain from watering the ornamental landscape trees. The homeowner looks at the browned-off lawn, the wilting flowers, and at the same time, sees that the trees appear green and healthy. The reasonable conclusion is that the trees can get by without irrigation, while the other garden plants cannot. This approach, however logical, is mistaken and ought to be reversed, for no other garden element can even begin to match the precious value of a tree. In years of drought, it is preferable to give up on the lawn and flowers, rather than risk the health of the trees and shrubs.

To put the matter in perspective, the bottom limit required by the most drought-hardy trees is thought to be around 300mm per year. This would apply to such species as Tamarisk and Pistachio. Most landscape trees however are dependent at the very least, on the 400-500mm of rain that fall during an average winter. If there is a shortfall and especially if a number of drought years follow each other, the trees will suffer.

The crucial point to remember is that water stress usually inflicts irreversible damage on a tree BEFORE it starts to show obvious symptoms of such stress. The tree’s hardiness to pests and disease for instance, is very much a function of this. The wise gardener therefore, accepts as axiomatic, that the first signs of distress in the tree (i.e. sudden leaf drop, or dead branches) are invariably the beginning of the end for that specimen.

Fruit trees, with exception of such species as Olive or Carob, require extra water in order to produce quality fruit. In drought years, it is possible to reduce the amount of water, by irrigating them on the same regime as the water-conserving trees. The fruit will be adversely affected of course, but you can save the tree as a whole.

While trees can live from anything between 30 and hundreds of years, shrubs and bushes have a garden life span of some 20-30 years. They therefore constitute the second most important plant element in the garden, at least as far as stability is concerned.

For our purpose here, shrubs can be divided into two broad groups. The leaves of those whose foliage is soft, tend to wilt when there is a lack of moisture. There is nothing to worry about here. When that happens, a slow, deep watering will cause them to recover, without the plant incurring significant damage. Three or four of these waterings are often sufficient through the year.

The other group concerns those bushes whose leaves are hard and leathery, such as Carissa or Star Jasmine. This property is an archetypal water-conserving devise, but it is here that gardeners are liable to make a serious mistake. As with most trees, shrubs of this kind can survive successive years of drought without displaying outward symptoms of stress, but when these do appear, it is often too late, and the plant is firmly set on a downward course to decline and an early death. Therefore during drought years, water such plants with the rest of the shrubs and bushes in the garden.